Aristotles View of Slavery Essay - 1285 Words

Born in the year of 384 B.C. Aristotle was seen as conventional for his time, for he regarded slavery as a natural course of nature and believed that certain people were born to be slaves due to the fact that their soul lacked the rational part that should rule in a human being; However in certain circumstances it is evident that Aristotle did not believe that all men who were slaves were meant to be slaves. In his book Politics, Aristotle begins with the Theory of The Household, and it is here that the majority of his views upon slavery are found. With the beginning of Chapter IV, Aristotles idea of slavery is clearly defined. The instruments of the household form its stock of property : they are animate and†¦show more content†¦By virtue of that principle, the soul rules the body; and by virtue of it the master, who possesses the rational faculty of the soul, rules the slave, who possesses only bodily powers and the faculty of understanding the directions given b y anothers reason. It was Aristotles views on the human soul that gave grounds to his arguments for slavery. It was his beliefs that the soul was divided into two parts, being the rational faculty and the capacity for obeying. Aristotle postulated that a freeman was innately born with the rational faculty while A slave is entirely without the faculty of deliberation. And with his views he felt as though it was necessary for there to be a natural ruling order, whereas, the body was ruled by the soul, and those with the natural rational faculty within their soul should rule others without. This relationship, Aristotle found to be an essential element in his idea of master and slave being two parts forming one common entity. It was his belief that a mans body was the representation of his inner self and that it was natures intentions to distinguish between those who were born to be freemen and those born to be slaves. However, we see that Aristotle have somewhat reservations upon his beliefs that all slaves corresponded to his mold. With such quotes as But with nature , though she intends, does not always succeed in achieving aShow MoreRelatedAristotles Theory of Slavery1295 Words   |  6 PagesSome aspects of Aristotles theory of slavery Slavery -- natural or conventional? Aristoles theory of slavery is found in Book I, Chapters iii through vii of the Politics. and in Book VII of the Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle raises the question of whether slavery is natural or conventional. He asserts that the former is the case. So, Aristotles theory of slavery holds that some people are naturally slaves and others are naturally masters. Thus he says: But is there any one thus intendedRead MoreHistory Paper923 Words   |  4 Pages Who were these people? 1c. Why was slavery for them natural? 1d. Why was slavery beneficial and just for them? 2a. How would you argue against Aristotles defense of natural slavery? 2b. Did he make false assumptions? 2c. Were his arguments illogical? 2d. Can you argue against his view starting from his assumptions? How? 3a. To what extent did Aristotle believe that it was good and just for vitors in war to enslave their captives? 3b. Was slavery for Aristotle anything other than theRead More Foundations of Political Thought Essays1664 Words   |  7 PagesAristotle and Socrates and Plato’s beliefs have similarities mainly evident in their denouncement of democracy for the state. The views of Socrates expressed and written by his pupil Plato are vastly philosophical in nature and he promotes the idea of questioning life to achieve insight. The philosophers who possess the absolute truth are the best equipped to rule society according to Plato and his Allegory of the Cave. Conversely, Aristotle takes a more political science approach of discussingRead MoreThe Nature of Man as Political Animal Essay1723 Words   |  7 Pages Not everyone will agree with Aristotles political theory, but it is essential to understand the principals that underline the new political theories. Aristotles politics is one of the most influential books of political philosophy. His main ideology consists in that a man is by n ature a political animal because he can reason and communicate with others, therefore, has the potential to alter or change his living conditions for better because he can recognize the difference from right or wrong.Read MoreThe Impossible Quest For The Ideal Society1645 Words   |  7 Pagesbeen debated for centuries. Many theories have been conjured up by intellectuals, all with differing divisions of power, wealth, and labor. Two of these competing theories are those presented in Plato’s The Republic and Aristotle’s Politics. While they both present a wide range of views on many issues, this paper will only focus on two issues that go hand-in-hand: slavery’s role in society, and the divisions of property and power amongst the classes. Aristotle makes a better case for the selection ofRead MoreEssay Ancient Slavery: Death Senetence or Life Opportunity?554 Words   |  3 Pages In Aristotles Justifying Slavery and Senecas On Master and Slave, the two authors express their opposing sentiments on the principles of slavery. While Aristotle describes slavery as predestined inferiority, evidenced greatly by physical attributes, Seneca emphasizes the importance of philosophical freedom as opposed to physical freedom. (p. 58). The authors contrasting views are disclosed in their judgments on the morality of slavery, the degree of freedom all people possess at birthRead MoreEvolution of Slavery in Justice Essay1183 Words   |  5 PagesSlavery is immoral. Why? Because we hold this truth to be self-evident: that all men are created equal? Because life, liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness are unalienable rights endowed by our Creator? (â€Å"Declaration of Independence.† 1776.) Well, not all men are created equal. At least according to our Founding Fathers, African tribes, 18th century Europeans, the ancient Romans and Greeks, and †¦ the Bible. As a matter of fact, slavery has not been immoral from humanity’s (also to be interpretedRead More Slavery in Aristotles Works Essay3296 Words   |  14 Pagesinvestigation of any aspect of Aristotle’s political theories is undertaken, we must take a moment to acknowledge that many of the institutions and doctrines he defends have been repudiated in modern political thought. In fact many such institutions are appalling and simply morally wrong. One such institution is slavery. Aristotle argues in the Politics that slavery is just. No argument is needed to conclude that Aristotle made a terrible ethical and moral error in defending slavery. Further we must acceptRead MoreAristotle s Views On Politics1031 Words   |  5 Pages To start off, it is important to understand where Aristotle’s is coming from. Aristotle looked for solutions in a Universal manner. Basically, the principles and solutions for correctness comes from the idea that they have to be natural more than conventional. The idea of the good from Aristotle’s point of vi ew comes from observation, he believed that the good is the final cause(there are three others that will be discussed), and that everyone can understand judgement and collective moral actionRead MoreAthenian Citizenship : Aristotle s Exclusions1511 Words   |  7 PagesAthenian Citizenship: Aristotle’s Exclusions In Aristotle’s interpretation of citizenship, it is clear that citizenship is a fluid title, applied to an exclusive group of men only after meeting certain qualifications, and revocable upon meeting certain others. While Aristotle is unable to answer clearly â€Å"who should properly be called a citizen and what a citizen really is† (p.85), he dedicates several chapters to explicating who is not a citizen in an attempt to determine who is. Though Aristotle

Essay On Colosseum - 1588 Words

Module 2: Age of Perfection and Empire (Colosseum – Negative) 336! The Colosseum (72AD – 80AD) demonstrates that function (â€Å"shelter, program, organization, use, occupancy, materials, social purpose†) informs style (â€Å"line, outline, shape, composition†) (Figure 1) (Hendrix 2013, 1; John, Sheard and Vickery 2007, 4). Built as a theatre to entertain Roman citizens, the Colosseum’s shape, size, tiered seating, arena and rhythmical arches emerges from the functional requirements to stage entertainment, maximise spectatorship, manage crowds and provide structural stability (John, Sheard and Vickery 2007, 1). The cross-section of the Colosseum (Figure 2) reveals the translation of function into form: †¢ Spectacle: A large central arena provided the†¦show more content†¦Therefore, whilst varying facades and building technology may â€Å"disguise usage norms†, the form of the Colosseum (and modern stadiums) emerges from function (Maguire 2014, 127). Module 3: Heavenly Pursuits (Gothic – Affirmative) The intricate carvings, stained-glass windows, statues, jewelled ornamentation and elaborate paintwork of the Gothic cathedral augments the architectural form. A theological shift during the 12th century triggered an architectural transition from the dark, heavy Romanesque church to the illuminated, soaring and delicate Gothic cathedral (Figure 8) (Ching, Jarzomebek, and Prakash 2011, 369, 420). Annihilating the mass of the Romanesque, Gothic architecture employed slender columns, vaulted ceilings, pointed arches, flying buttresses and large windows to achieve a light, skeletal structure with soaring heights and a light-filled interior (Figure 9) (Nuttgens 1997, 160). The decorative carving further reduces the mass to create a delicate lacework, that coupled with sculptured jambs, piers and archivolts, enhances and disguises the architecture leading Scott (1879, 313) to â€Å"†¦question whether the sculpture of these cathedrals does not excel the architecture† (Figure 10). Significantly, the corporeal light filtering through the stained glass (allegorically the divine illumination of God) and the delicate pillars that draw the eye to the soaring vaulted ceiling combine to create a system ofShow MoreRelatedColosseum of Rome Essay2347 Words   |  10 PagesIn this essay, I will be writing about the great Colosseum of Rome and what was held inside to give the citizens of Rome some entertainment. The Romans had many choices of what to do during their spare time, such as ball games, board games, and watching gladiatorial fights in the Colosseum; this was the most popular type of entertainment. To many people today, Roman entertainment was classed as cruel. However, not all forms of entertainment involved such violence as within the Colosseum. ThereRead More The Colosseum Essay2316 Words   |  10 PagesThe Colosseum In the first century AD, the Roman Emperor Vespasian decided that Rome needed a stadium that would not only satisfy the crowds, but also convince the magnitude that Rome had become a power to be reckoned with. He wanted them to know that Rome now again had strong and unquestionable power in the world after the strong and bitter civil war it had recently gone through. His idea was to create an amphitheater. This theater, named the Flavian Amphitheater, earned a reputation as theRead MoreThe Colosseum Essay example798 Words   |  4 Pages Architecture of the ancient Roman Empire is one of the most fascinating of all time. The city of Rome once housed more than one million residents. The Romans made great use of many architectural shapes like arches and columns. Using these they were able to build monstrous buildings of worship, entertainment and other services. The one building that comes in mind over the centuries, when you think of Rome is The Amphitheatrum Flavium or The Coloseum. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The Coloseum wasRead More The Roman Colosseum Essays2385 Words   |  10 PagesThe Roman Colosseum, a colossal amphitheater, was built in the first century under Flavians rule. Many events such as gladiator games, beast fights, naval battles, and much more took place inside the huge elliptical arena. People of all ages and classes attended these well-known spectacles. The Colosseum is a huge Roman architectural achievement and the fact that it is still standing today only amplifies the importance of this structure. Hundred of thousands of people attended the ancient gamesRead MoreWas the Colosseum a Perfect Amphitheatre? Essay876 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"The Colosseum was a perfect amphitheatre.† How far do you agree with this statement? The Colosseum, located in Rome was built opened by the Emperor Titus in 80 AD. By many it is considered a â€Å"perfect amphitheatre† due to its dà ©cor, practicality and large structural layout. However, there are some features of the Colosseum which mean it is difficult to use, hence leading to some people disagreeing with the statement. One of the main reasons why the Colosseum was and is so highly respected isRead MoreThe Colosseum : Cultural And Cultural Values1305 Words   |  6 Pagesthe present essay examines and evaluates the way in which the architectural building of ‘The Colosseum’ describes the societal and cultural values of Rome. In addition to this, the essay also demonstrates the technical and spatial features of the buildings and illustrates the way through the building is able to develop a language of classical architecture in Rome. The thesis statement of the present essay can be stated as ‘The extent to which the architectural building of ‘The Colosseum’ in Rome depictsRead MoreSocial Structure in the Colosseum1229 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ The Ancient Roman Social Structure in the Colosseum Ancient Rome is one of the greatest and most influential societies in the history of the world. From the basic rules of how the Roman Empire is set up to the infrastructures in the city, the strict hierarchy of Roman social structure can be reflected clearly all over the whole ancient Rome. In fact that â€Å"public architecture presents people with the official view of a society and provides the background against which its individual markersRead MoreThe Importance Of The Colosseum1009 Words   |  5 Pages The famous historical structure known as the Colosseum is a remarkable piece of architecture that has survived for over nearly two millenniums. It was commissioned by the Emperor Vespasian of the Flavian dynasty as a gift to the people of Rome and completed by his son, Titus in the year 70 A.D. (History, 2009). Since then, the Flavian Amphitheater has gone through lifetimes of changes with chronicles of events. It is one of the most impressive ancient structures that still sta nd today and is extraordinaryRead MoreA Brief Note On The Punic Wars And Rome1713 Words   |  7 PagesEvan Myers Dr. Cary Western Cultural Traditions I October 14, 2015 Rome Midterm Essays Punic Wars The three Punic Wars were between ancient Carthage and Rome and took place over almost a century. The wars began in 264 B.C. and ended in 146 B.C. with the destruction of Carthage (History.com Staff). At the time the war broke out, Carthage was the world’s leading maritime power in the Mediterranean and Rome was the dominant power in the Italian Peninsula (History.com Staff). In the First PunicRead MoreForm and Function of the Colosseum1286 Words   |  6 PagesForm and Function of the Colosseum Colosseum is an example of a building in which its form and function are inextricably linked. To prove this, let us take a look at some of the orders, the wall-like structure and the vaults of the Colosseum as part of its form and functions. With reference to the Illustration Book Colour Plate 19,28,72,75,76 and 78, and Block 2 The Colosseum Figure 6.1 and 6.2, the Colosseum evidently uses five orders: ‘Doric’, ‘Tuscan’, ‘Ionic’

A Summary of Chapter 4 of Brave New World free essay sample

Brave New World Dialectical Journal: Chapter 4 Introduction: Close your eyes, and think of a time in your life when you felt like you didn’t fit into a specific group or place. Now think about what it would be like to live there every moment of your life. Theme: The theme of chapter four is being an individual or being different from other people and feeling isolated. The reason that this is the theme of the chapter is that Bernard Marx and Helmholtz Watson both feel out of place in the society that they were placed in. Bernard Marx is insecure about his height and Helmholtz is a little too smart for his own good. Because they both feel the same way, a friendship develops between them. Purpose: The purpose of this section is to introduce the feeling of isolation that Bernard and Helmholtz are experiencing. It develops a conflict within the story. We will write a custom essay sample on A Summary of Chapter 4 of Brave New World or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Summary: Lenina tells Bernard that she accepts his invitation to go to the Savage Reservation in New Mexico. Instead of reacting with delight, Bernard is embarrassed and asks her is they can talk about it in private. Bernard also does not like that Lenina doesn’t mind talking about sex in public. Lenina then walks away to find Henry to go on their helicopter date over the city. Benito Hoover wants to have a conversation with Bernard but he rushes away before he can say much. Bernard tells a group of Delta-minus to get his helicopter ready. This causes him to feel very insecure because he is a part of the upper caste but he is smaller than all the rest of the upper caste. He feels very alienated because of this and starts to become angry. He then goes to visit Helmholtz Watson who is a lecturer at the college of Emotional Engineering. Both of the men, in a way, are trying to find themselves. Watson feels that there is another, more important way to say things. Both of the men feel that they are individuals. Bernard then tells Watson that Lenina accepted his invitation to go to New Mexico. Watson doesn’t show much interest though because he is preoccupied with the thought of a new way of writing. Bernard then gets very nervous and jumps because he thought he heard someone at the door listening. Quote and Analysis: Passage| Analysis| â€Å"A mental excess had produced in Helmholtz Watson effects very similar to those which, in Bernard Marx, were the result of a physical defect. Too little bone and brawn had isolated Bernard from his fellow men, and he sense of this apartness, being, by all the current standards, a mental excess, became in is cause a wider separation. That which had made Helmholtz so uncomfortably aware of being himself and all alone was too much ability. What the two men shared was the knowledge that they were individuals. †| This passage is significant because it reveals the insecurities of the two men. It also reveals the shallowness of the society that they live in. This isolates her from everyone else and makes her different and I think this was purposely done to introduce the theme of being an outsider. Major elements in the author’s style: * Word Choice: His word choice makes you feel what the characters are feeling. For example, â€Å"Bernard’s pale face flushed† tells you that Bernard is embarrassed, without directly saying that he’s embarrassed. * Characterization: The author uses direct and indirect characterization to show the personalities of each character and to develop a conflict or a plot. An example of this is that he portrays Lenina as a very straight forward and typical woman by making her seem so eager to have sex. He also depicts Helmholtz and Bernard as atypical characters by having them wonder about things outside of their society, and does this by making them different than others. * Plot development: The author lets the reader know that Bernard is going to be a focal point of the plot by making him appear differently than others and by making him think differently than others.

To Kill A Mocking Bird Essay Essays - To Kill A Mockingbird

To Kill A Mocking Bird Essay The theme of courage In 1960, Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird was published. It is a story about growing up, human dignity and prejudgment. It is a story about courage. Courage is mental or moral strength to venture, persevere and withstand danger, fear, or difficulty. The theme of courage is embodied in the characters of the novel. Courage is apparent in Atticus, Boo, and Jem. Throughout the novel, the actions and feelings these characters exhibit shows the true meaning of courage. Atticus Finch is a studious man with a sense of morality that no other character in the book comes close to matching. Atticus' behavior is governed by reason, morals and values- not cheap popularity. In the novel, Atticus takes on the Tom Robinson case. When asked about the reason he takes on this case, Atticus simply relies, ?But do you think I could face my children otherwise This is truly an act of admirable courage because he goes against all odds of the prejudice town and takes on this case. Atticus is harassed and tormented by the town for taking on the case. Yet he would rather be taunted than to go against his morals. This is courageous of him because he performs this courageous act and expects nothing in return. By taking on this case, Atticus is harassed by Bob Ewell. When Bob spits in Atticus' face, all Atticus says is, ?I wish Bob Ewell wouldn't chew tobacco.? Instead of sinking to Bob Ewells' level, Attics takes the harassment and takes it with his head held high. This ability to withstand harassment from Bob Ewell, and Maycomb, is courage. Atticus shoots Tim Johnson- a ?mad dog? with rabies. Atticus places his own life in danger in order to protect the lives of others. This event occurs at the perfect time in the story, just as the kids label Atticus as being ?feeble: he was nearly 50.? Shooting Tim Johnson proves to the children Atticus is anything but feeble, he is indeed courageous. As the reader can clearly see, Atticus epitomizes the definition of courage. Courage, in Atticus' opinion, is not being able to fight with fists but to fight with knowledge and dignity. Atticus tells the children, ?I wanted you to see what real courage is instead of the idea that courage is a man with a gun in his hand. Its when you known your licked before you begin but you begin anyway and you see it through no matter what. You rarely win, but sometimes you do.? Atticus acknowledges this as courage. He knows he will never win the Tom Robinson case, yet he continues to give it 101%. Without any doubt, Atticus is the definition of courage. The man who is ostracized by Maycomb, the man who lives in mysterious seclusion- all words describing Boo Radley. Though never stated, it is implied that Boo is a recluse because of his mean-spirited brother, Nathan. Yet Boo truly does want to be part of the ?outside world,? though he somewhat fears it. Boo proves to be courageous because he goes against the wishes of Nathan and leaves various paraphernalia in the knothole of the big oak tree. Rumors travel around town about Boo, such as ?Boo drove the scissors into his parent's leg, pulled them out, wiped them clean and resumed his activities.? Boo is able to ignore such rumors and carry on. This shows courage, the courage to live life even when presented with many obstacles. When Bob Ewell attempts to make an attack on the children, Boo rushes in to save their lives. Boo doesn't think twice about his life, only thinking about others. Boo is a scrawny character, Bob Ewell is definitely bigger in size then Boo. Yet Boo acts courageously and looks danger in the eye- all for others. Jem Finch is the character that changes most during the course of the novel. He starts off as a gawky boy and turns into a mature and courageous young adult. Courage is evident in Jem. It takes courage for Jem to be the way he is in the story- opinionated and strong-willed. All of the people around Jem constantly plague him with the idea that black people are bad and sinful. Jem went against those ideas and took on his own opinions. Jem's refusal to give into ?Maycomb's usual disease? shows true courage. Jem is brave enough to stand up to Mrs. Dubose and go against society's dominant views. Jem was forced to rebuild

How to Study for SAT Subject Tests 5 Expert Tips

How to Study for SAT Subject Tests 5 Expert Tips SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Are you taking an SAT Subject Test soon and want to know how to be well prepared on exam day? You've come to the right place! In this guide, I explain everything you need to know about how to study for SAT Subject Tests, including which exam(s) you should take, the five most important steps for preparing for a Subject Test, and additional tips to help you maximize your score. This guide can be used to help you prepare for any and all of the 20 different Subject Tests offered, so let’s get started! Introduction to SAT Subject Tests Before we get into how to prepare for SAT Subject Tests, let’s go over some basic information on them. SAT Subject Tests are meant to measure your knowledge and skills in a specific area. This is in contrast to the ACT and regular SAT, both of which assess multiple subject areas.Some colleges require or recommend that you submit Subject Test scores when you apply to that school so they canget a better idea of your academic abilities. Each SAT Subject Test is an hour long, has 50-95 multiple-choice questions, and isscored on a scale of 200-800. SAT Subject Tests are offered several times a year, on all the same dates as the general SAT except for March. This means that SATSubject Tests are offered in the following months annually: May June August October November December However, not every Subject Test is available on every date. Check out our guide to learn the exact dates each Subject Test is offered.In most cases, you can take up to three Subject Tests in one day. Which SAT Subject Tests Should You Take? Before you can begin preparing for SAT Subject Tests, you need to decide which ones to take. The College Board offers 20 different SAT Subject Tests infive main areas. Here is the full list: English Literature History US History World History Languages Chinese with Listening French French with Listening German German with Listening Italian Japanese with Listening Korean with Listening Latin Modern Hebrew Spanish Spanish with Listening Mathematics Mathematics Level 1 Mathematics Level 2 Science Biology E/M Chemistry Physics The most important factor when deciding which Subject Test to take iswhat the colleges you’re thinking of applying to require or recommend. Some schools want you to take Subject Tests in the area you plan on majoring in, whereas others want one Subject Test score from Math/Science and another from Literature/History to show that you’re well rounded. In addition, some schools require or recommend only one Subject Test score, whereas others expect two or three. Be sure to research this information before you begin studying so you don’t end up preparing for and taking a Subject Test you didn’t actually need to take! The other factor to consider is which subject areas you are best in and/or enjoy the most.For example, if you did well in your chemistry class at school and need a science SAT Subject Test, you might want to consider the Chemistry Subject Test. Finally, it’s often easier to do well on Subject Tests that are closely related to classes you've already taken, especially AP classes. If you just took AP World History and studied a lot for the AP exam, you might not need to do much studying at all in order to prepare for the World History SAT Subject Test, especially if you take it in May right after your class ends. How to Study for SAT Subject Tests After you’ve figured out which SAT Subject Test you’ll be taking, follow these five steps in order to prepare for the exam. These steps cover everything you need to do from the time you begin studying up until test day. Step 1: Take an Initial Practice Test One of the first things you should do istakea full-length practice exam for the Subject Test you’re planning to take.Once finished, complete and score your practice exam to see how well you did. For more tips on how to find high-quality practice exams and how to take a practice test most effectively, check out the "How to Use Practice SAT Subject Tests Effectively" section below. Aim to get higher than the average score for that SAT Subject Testfor the most competitive school you’re applying to.You can sometimesfind average Subject Test scores on the admissions page of a school’s website. If you can’t find this information, though, consider contacting the school directly. You can also check outthe average score for each Subject Test. Ourguide shows you how well test takers do on each SAT Subject Test. But ifyou’re applying to a particularly competitive school, you’ll likely have to aim higher than just the average test score depicted on the chart. Try to aim for the top 25% of test takers, or even the top 5% if you’re applying totop-tier schools. Step 2: Decide How Much You Want to Study Once you have your practice test score, see how far it is from the goal score you’re aiming for. If your practice test score is pretty close to the score you’re hoping to get on the real Subject Test, you might only need to do light studying between now and the exam. If you have some ground to gain, you’ll likely want to do some more serious preparation. Keep reading to find out exactly what you'll need to do. Step 3: Gather the Materials You Need Now, it’s time to start gathering the materials you need to prepare for your SAT Subject Test.Study materials can include class notes as well as review books specifically focusing on the Subject Test you're taking.There are a lot of review books out there, but some of the most popular are those produced by Barron’s, Kaplan, and The Princeton Review. The College Board also offersofficial study books for some of the more popular Subject Tests, such as Math Level 1, Math Level 2, US History, and World History. However, these books are mostly just practice exams and explanations of answers as opposed to thorough content reviews. Visit the College Board's online store for a full list of SAT Subject Test study guides(or scroll down to the next section!). Alternatively, you might want to buyThe Official Study Guide for All SAT Subject Tests, which (as you probably guessed) providesan overview of the Subject Tests, quality practice questions, and one full-length practice test per exam.At present, the book sells for around $10 on Amazon. Finally, we at PrepScholar have created specific study guides to help you prepare for the Biology, Chemistry, Literature, Physics, US History, and World HistorySAT Subject Tests. Step 4: Create a Study Plan Developing a prep plan is important because it helps you commit to study times and track your progress.Try to set aside the same time to study each week, such as 2-4 pm on Sundays or 5-6:30 pm on Tuesdays and Thursdays.This will make it easier to remember when to study and allow you to plan other activities around your prep sessions. You should also set weekly or monthly goals you hope to accomplish. This will help track your progress and ensure you’re where you need to be. Example goals include things such as "I want to understand properties of functions by the end of the week," or "I want to raise my score 20 points by the end of the month." Be sure to also schedule time to take practice tests and track your progress. Ideally, you’ll take at least two practice tests before the real deal, with one at the beginning of your studying and one at the end. If you’re studying a lot or over a long period of time, you might want to schedule one or more additional practice tests during the middle of your studying. Step 5: Start Studying! Now, it’s time to get down to business and begin studying! When you’re reviewing material, your best bet is usually to use your prep book as your main resource,and use your class notes for any topics you want more in-depth information on. Trying to review all your class notes for a subject can be very time consuming and possibly not that helpful if your class didn’t focus on the same topics the Subject Test focuses on. Prep books, on the other hand, are specifically designed to focus exactly on what the Subject Test covers.Below, we give you more information about how to use practice tests as well asfinal tips for studying for SAT Subject Tests. How to Use Practice SAT Subject Tests Effectively Practice tests are one of the most important tools in helping you reach your SAT Subject Test score goals, so you want to use them wisely. These three guidelines will help you do just this. Stick With High-Quality Tests Your practice test results are only as good as the quality of the practice test itself.If your practice test isn’t very similar to the real Subject Test, you won’t be getting an accurate idea of how well you’re scoring or what skills you should improve. Practice tests from the College Board are the best sources to use since you can be sure they’ll give you a good idea of the real exam. As I mentioned above, the College Board'sThe Official Study Guide for All SAT Subject Testsincludes one previously administered exam for each of the 20 Subject Tests. So if you’re planning to take multiple Subject Tests, this is a great resource to use. There are also official prep books for the seven following SAT Subject Tests: Math Level 1 Math Level 2 US History World History Chemistry Biology Physics Unofficial practice books that are still high quality include those produced by Barron’s, Kaplan, and The Princeton Review. There are other resources out there, too, so it can help to go to a bookstore and flip through a few books or read online reviews to decide which resource is best for you. Take the Test Under Real Test Conditions In order to get the most accurate idea of where you're currently scoring on your SAT Subject Test, you need to make sure your practice test conditions are as realistic as possible.This means taking the test in one sitting, timed (each Subject Test is an hour), and with no distractions. Track Your Progress Tracking your practice test scores over time is one of the best ways to see whether and where you’ve made improvements. Almost every practice test has instructions on how to calculate your score, but if you get confused, you can alwayscheck out our guide for a review.Unlike the general SAT, for SAT Subject Testsyou lose a fraction of a point for each question you answer incorrectly, so too many random guesses could very well bring down your score. Here's how scoring works for Subject Tests(all the Subject Tests except the foreign language tests have five answer choices. Foreign languages tests have four answer choices): You get 1 point for each correct answer. A fraction of a point is subtracted for wrong answers: 1/4 point is subtracted for five-choice questions. 1/3 point is subtracted for four-choice questions. 1/2 point is subtracted for three-choice questions. No points are deducted for questions left blank. If yourfinal score is a fraction, it's rounded to the nearest whole number - 1/2 or more is rounded up; less than 1/2 is rounded down. If you aren’t improving as much as you want to, try using different prep resources or changing up the way you study. It might be helpful to focus more on taking practice tests, study at a different time or day, or use other study methods such as flashcards. 3 Tips for Getting Your Best SAT Subject Test Score Now that we've thoroughly covered the basics of how to study for SAT Subject Tests, here are three advanced tips to helpyou get your best score. Know Your Learning Style There is no one-size-fits-all study plan, and the best way to see the results you want is to use your learning style to your advantage.Maybe you’re a visual learner and need to see diagrams, charts, and images for the information you’re learning to sink in. Or perhaps you’re an auditory learner and learn best with audiobooks or podcasts. You might already know what your learning style is, but, if not, try out different methods of studying and see which work best. You can also alter the day of the week, time of day, and length of time you study to see if that makes any difference. Don't Passively Study It might be easiest to let your eyes drift over the pages you’re studying, but this rarely gets you the results you want.Try to make your studying as active as possible. This might mean drawing diagrams, making flashcards, having a friend quiz you, or even just pausing every few minutes to review what you’ve read and ensure you’re actually retaining the information. The less passive your studying is, the more likely you are to see significant improvements. Zero In on the Areas and Skills You Need to Improve When preparing for an SAT Subject Test, make sure you’re spending most of your time on the areas and skills you need to improve the most. If you’re studying for the World History Subject Test and are solid on European history but struggle with Asian history, don’t spend an equal amount of time reviewing Europe and Asia. Instead, you’ll want to spend more time focusing on important Asian events, periods, and people, and only come back to Europe for a quick, occasional review to make sure you still remember everything. By spending the majority of your time on the areas where you have the most room to improve, you’ll likely see score improvements more quickly. Summary: How to Study for SAT Subject Tests If you want to get top scores, you have to understand how to prepare for SAT Subject Tests.Follow these five steps in order to be well prepared for any Subject Test: Take an initial practice test Decide how much you need to study Gather the materials you need Create a study plan Start studying! Additionally, remember to use your practice tests effectively, practice active studying, and focus most of your time on the areas you need to make the biggest improvements in. What's Next? Wondering how to register for an SAT Subject Test? Our step-by-step guide walks you through everything you need to know to get started. Which is more important: AP tests or SAT Subject Tests? Learn how the two tests compareand which examsyou should spend more time preparing for. Not sure whether to take the Math Level 1 or Math Level 2 Subject Test? Our guide explains the differences between the two exams and helps you decide which one to take. Need a little extra help prepping for your Subject Tests? We have the industry's leading SAT Subject Test prep programs (for all non-language Subject Tests). Built by Harvard grads and SAT Subject Test full or 99th %ile scorers, the program learns your strengths and weaknesses through advanced statistics, then customizes your prep program to you so that you get the most effective prep possible. Learn more about our Subject Test products below:

Descriptive Essay on My Pet

Descriptive Essay on My Pet Descriptive Essay on My Pet My pet is a dog named Tipsy. Tipsy is an adorable brown dog that has a few black spots spread across his body and tail. Tipsy is a kelpie crossed with a border collie, and he has fluffy velvety ears. Even though Tipsy has a very strong body frame, he has a very gentle face and is always a friendly dog to those whom he knows. If a stranger approaches out house, however, Tipsy can get very aggressive. He always barks loudly to attract our attention to the approaching stranger. Tipsy loves many things. Among these is to nuzzle his wet nose in my hands and in the hands on my parents and siblings. He craves attention most of the time because he is scared of being abandoned or ignored. I actually came across Tipsy while he was still a puppy. It appears his owner had abandoned him on the road. I found him wondering in our neighborhood. I informed my parents about the puppy. I wanted to keep him. They communicated with the local authorities so the authorities could allow us to adopt the pet. Tipsy loves food, especially bones. Once we have fed him his regular food, we always give him a few bones on which to chew. Tipsy can actually spend whole afternoons chewing bones because he loves them so much. Whenever Tipsy is worried, he looks at us with desperate eyes that appear like he is sad. He does so while wagging his tail from one side to the other. Whenever we see him exhibiting these signs, we immediately prepare him a quick meal and some bones for him to eat. Tipsy has also made it a habit to play with our cat, Toppy. Sometimes, Tipsy plays with and pours out the cat’s water, something that always leaves the cat giving him a vicious glare. Sometimes, the cat even meows as if to let Tipsy know that he is not very impressed with Tipsy for pouring out his water. Whenever, my dog plays with the cat’s water, I see him lifting his head as some of the cat’s water pours out from his tongue, like the way water drops from a waterfall. Tipsy also likes the chipping sound made by the birds that reside on the trees in our compound. Whenever Tipsy hears these sounds, he raises his ears and points them towards the direction where the chirping sound is originating. One can always observe the way his eyes light up with excitement whenever the birds begin making their soothing noises. My Pet descriptive essay writing tips: Since this is a description essay, one is supposed to describe the unique characteristics of one’s favorite pet which in this case is a dog. Since most dogs have a name, it is prudent that one begins this description by providing the name of the dog followed by the species to which the dog belongs. Once this is done, one can begin describing the things that the dog likes and those that it does not appreciate. For instance in this essay, the writer has described the way the dog loves food and what it does whenever it needs to eat some food. Ready to pay for essay help online? Dont hesitate to contact writing service now!

Bird's Individualism and Escapism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Bird's Individualism and Escapism - Essay Example Since Oe wrote the novel shortly past the world war, he portrays the state of the Japanese people after the war (Adhikari 1). The individualism and escapism in Bird leaves the readers frustrated that anyone would abandon responsibility and seek self-gratification in the way Bird does. Although portrayed extensively in only one character, individualism and escapism takes the toll of the novel and is worth the reader’s attention. Individualism and escapism drive the actions of the main character, Bird. The author introduces Bird as a character who seeks to fulfill his fantasies and selfish ambition neglecting the responsibilities of a family man. Bird craves to go to Africa and experience the wild life in a land, away from the devastating effects of civilization (2). It is clear that he does not like the real life situations in his homeland and would rather disappear to another continent and experience change. This is an individualistic and selfish venture. Instead of seeking to rebuild his nation and create a favorable condition after the world war aftermath, he busies himself with getting familiarity of Africa from maps. Bird takes the situation as a personal matter. He seeks to actualize himself some day and discover true happiness in a world away from the ill-fate life presents. The author paints a picture of the situations in Bird’s life as he fantasizes about Africa. ... Instead of anticipating the new responsibility in his life, he only sees how the indulging family life will hold him from living his African dream. The situation worsens when an abnormal baby comes into their life (2). The author exposes Bird’s inner feelings about the birth of the abnormal child. Instead of accepting the child and committing to work towards saving the innocent child, Bird wishes that the child could just die. He does not realize that all life is equal and does not display fatherly concern. He seeks to evade the situation. He does not consider the pain of the other family members and give them the right support. He does not even think about the baby’s welfare. His individualistic attitude prevents him from showing any empathy. In a bid to pursue happiness and contentment for himself, he deserts his immediate family. Bird embarks on finding ways of escaping the painful realities of his life. The baby needs an operation in order to survive and that means that Bird must sacrifice his savings for the baby’s health. For Bird, it is not easy to make this sacrifice because that would force him to forget about his African dream. This reasoning surprises the reader because a father should be willing to make any sacrifice for the welfare of his children. Bird lets individualism hinder his fatherly instincts. He decides to starve the child to death. In his view, the savings are just enough to allow him to travel to the foreign land and start a more fulfilling life. He drifts to a deceptive world where sorrows and pains do not exist. He cannot handle the thoughts of what is happening to him. Bird finds himself trapped in loneliness and cowardice and he seeks refuge in his ex-girlfriend Himiko. Himiko is lonely and desperate after the death

Environmental and Access Issues in Outdoor Adventure Essay

Environmental and Access Issues in Outdoor Adventure - Essay Example Human interest in nature, as recorded back in history, helped in discovering many wonderful facts. We have discovered many natural processes which we were unaware of in the past. Yet a lot has to be discovered. Researchers gave their valuable time and lives for the sake of the facts about nature. They tried harder and harder to be as close to the nature as they can. And they are noticeably successful. They provided us with the knowledge of environmental change. They gave us information about the unpredictable weather changes and tried to solve this and many other issues like to measure the intensity of natural disasters etc. The questions arise, how did they find out such problems What made them think about these problems Did they find any solution What problems did they face while researching A person who asks these questions is a researcher. The curiosity to find out the answers led them to eradicate the hurdles in their way. They had an aim to come up with something new, some new ideas, information, data or discovery. There are many environmental issues to be solved and to protect the natural resources in the world as these natural resources after a time will vanish from the world. ... Many people endanger their lives due to lack of knowledge and proper guidance. We lose many priceless lives due to these issues. Due to insufficient facilities mountain climbers are not able to avail the opportunity to climb on the mountains. The adventure lovers are crazy about the mountain climbing. Due to insufficient sources and guidance, they harm themselves and also develop a fear among other students and tourists. In the under developing countries like Pakistan, Ukraine Afghanistan etc mountains are not preserved properly. This is a major factor that should be reviewed as the tourists who come to visit these places can give harm to these places. The forts in these countries are not conserved appropriately. No authority is available to protect them from the people and weather changes. No material is available to make them strong enough to bear the weather dangers. In these countries, there is also a great threat posed to the wild life as even now the hunters may come and hunt animals. This is causing a great harm to the wildlife. Laws must be passed and followed to avoid these threats. The weather of many untouched places is not bearable for human. This is being the cause of many natural secrets unrevealed. Global warming leads to many problems. Due to the pollution in the society this is becoming an alarming problem which needs to be solved. In winters the weather of a certain place rises to such a level that the tourists can face difficulties. In summer, the weather of certain places gets too warm that it becomes difficult for them to reach the camp everyday. No proper shelter is available for the people visiting those places. Once they reach the place, it becomes difficult for them

Journal summary Essay Example for Free

Journal summary Essay Organizational Assessment : Effectiveness vs. Efficiency This journal is being chosen related to the Organizational Theory, Design and Change for chapter 1 about the Organization Effectiveness. i. What was the aim of the study? An organization had its own goals and mission. There were many ways that could be implement in order to make sure that the organization will achieves whether it short or long term goal. The term effectiveness and efficiency was always being the indicator of the organization performance. This study will determine the differentiation, features, proximities or values of the effectiveness and efficiency. There were some people believe that there is no difference between effectiveness and efficiency, but according to Mouzas (2006), each of these terms have their own distinct meanings. ii. Model that being used in this study. As stated in the chapter 1, under â€Å"How Does an Organization Create Value? † there is value creation. Value creation takes places at three stages which are input, conversion and output. To differentiate the meaning of effectiveness and efficiency, the authors of this study has adapted a model from Frey and Widmer (2009) regarding effectiveness and efficiency. Figure 1 Chain of effects Based on Figure 1, we can see that efficiency information provides different data compared to effectiveness. As we can see, under the effectiveness it concern about output, outcome and impact. It measures the on how the organization will achieve their goals or the way outputs interact with the economic and social environment. For the efficiency aspect we can see it concern about the input and output. According to (Low, 2000), the efficiency will measure on how successfully the inputs have been transformed into outputs. iii. What is the result of the study? This study was using the obstructive measure approach where the authors had collected finding from other resources. In order to come out with conclusion, they had gathered many findings related to the effectiveness and efficiency. They highlighted few points such as the meaning, differences, characteristics, and how it will be dependence toward each other. According to the study by Pinprayong and Seingthai (2012), they suggest that return on assets (ROA) is suitable measure of overall company performance, since it reveals how profitable organizations assets are in making revenues. Total assets turnover will measure the ability of a company to use it assets to efficiency generate sales; therefore it can be treated as effectiveness. As conclusion, they had come out with formula of: Organizational performance = effectiveness x efficiency; iv. Limitations In some cases effectiveness concept is being used to reflect overall performance of the organization, since it is a broader concept compared to the efficiency. It gets challenging to explore the efficiency factor if it is included under effectiveness assessment v. Conclusion The characteristics of effectiveness and efficiency Figure 1. 1 shows that the organizations cannot survive without effectiveness policy. Even though the organization is an inefficient but effective, organization still have a chances to survive. Usually, organization that in high effectiveness and high efficiency are well known as high performance entities. Effectiveness is a much broader perspectives, which touch about quality, value, satisfactions, output and environments. Efficiency is on how well the input was transformed into output. Effectiveness and efficiency, they influence each other. In order to achieve all the organizations goals and had an excellence in competitive performance, organizations should find way on increasing the efficiency and effectives evenly. 2. Impact of Employee Adaptability to Change Towards Organizational Competitive Advantage This journal is being chosen related to the Organizational Theory, Design and Change for chapter 4 about the Basic Challenges of Organizational Design i. What was the aim of the study? A change in the most understandable way is the moving process from one point to another. It’s not a must to do things for an organization, but in order to make sure the organization in can compete and achieve the better performance, changes should be made. Although changing is the good things to do, but it have own limitations and it cannot easily made, so that why this study had being conducted. The purpose of this study is to know how the competitive advantages have the significant effect on training and development, empowerment and maintaining in the organization. It is stated in this study, that their aim is to identify and to discuss the reasons why employees didn’t easily adapt the changes than those eager to adapt the change in any case. ii. Model that being used in this study. There were three variables that being used for this study which are training and development, empowerment and culture. These variables will tested in order to know the relationship of the variables towards the employee adaptability to change which is a moderator and competitive advantage being a dependent variable. iii. What is the result of the study? Before come out with a conclusion, data must be collected and analyze. For this study they had distributed 80 questionnaires towards employees within service sector organizations and others. On the basis of the data conducted from the person engage in the executive, supervisors and staff position. Table 2. 1 Descriptive Analysis The findings were analyzed by using descriptive statistics. Based on the result gathered by questionnaires, the authors will use the correlation of the statistical interference in order to identify the hypothesis had being developed this study and relationship between the discussed variables. Above we can conclude that training development is good for the employee to adapt the change and organizations leads it competitive advantage. For the empowerment, they score greater mean that training development which is good to the employee. Lastly, from the table its show that good culture has influence on the organizational competitive advantage. iv. Conclusion In order to make an organization competence, they should a changing process toward the better environments. But, changes are not easily made. They will be some people that against on the changing process. That is why, the adaptability is important. As being stated in this study, employee adaptability is more dependent on the parallel activities that preceded along with the others activities in the organization and these activities helps the employee to perform more enthusiastically and impatient to demeanor any challenge or adapt any change whatever it will be. 3. Organizational Culture and Its Themes This journal is being chosen related to the Organizational Theory, Design and Change for chapter 7 about Creating and Managing Organizational Culture. i. What was the aim of the study? Organizational culture is a about sharing value and norms that will help on controlling organizational members interactions within each other and with people outside the organization. As written in this journal, culture within an organization acts as a critical role in the organizations everyday operations. In order to validate this statement, a study about an organizational culture had being conducted. The purpose of this study is to know in deeper what is an organizational culture, models related, themes and the importance toward an organization. ii. Model that being used in this study. As being stated earlier, organization culture can be described as a set of theory consist of values, beliefs, and understanding that members share in common. It also helps in the ways of thinking that could help while making decision. From the perspective of Andrew Brown (1995, 1998), the organization culture: â€Å"Refers to the patters of beliefs, values and learned ways of coping with experience that have developed during the course of an organization’s history, and which tend to manifested in its material arrangements and in the behaviors of its members†. One of those models that being adapted in this study is the Onion Diagrams, by Hofstede. He was dividing culture into four layers which consist of symbols, heroes, ritual and values. Figure 3. 1 Onion Diagram Based on the Figure 3. 1 above, the core level in the culture level is value; values are intimately connected with moral and ethical codes which determine what people ought to be done. The second level is rituals, which is describing the collective activities that considered essential. The next level is heroes. According to Deal and Kennedy (1982), hero is a great motivator; heroes are also persons who possess characteristic which are highly prized. Symbols are the most overt element of culture and are the gestures, objects, words or acts that signify something different or wider from the others, and which have meaning for individual or group. iii. The importance of this study In order to have a rapid organization development, organization culture can be used as a tool to help the organization reach success. It also can be a management tool, which managers can use some values to control and direct employee behavior. In addition, the importance of the organization culture toward the development of an organization seconded with statement from Campbell and Stonehouse (1999) said: â€Å"Culture can also have influence on; employee motivation; employee morale and ‘good will’; productivity and efficiency; the quality of work; innovation and creativity and the attitude of employees in the workplace†. iv. Conclusion As stated in this study, they highlighted that in order to achieve a successful culture, managers shouldn’t ignore organizational culture and its themes, because culture can be used as a competitive advantage during organizational development, and a strong culture (one in which beliefs and values are widely shared and strongly held) can also offer many advantages, such as cooperation, control, communication or commitment. 4. Re conceptualizing Organizational Role Theory for Contemporary Organizational Contexts i. Aim and introduction of the study. The purpose of this study is to know deeper regarding the organizational role theory and to identify what are the issues related to the organizational theory that will limit it usage. In this study, they were several issue that being listed out regarding organizational theory. Based on Katz and Kahn (1966) state that the assignment of work-roles prescribes the behavior of employees are expected to comply, so that they are able to perform their speci? ed tasks and duties effectively. He also mentions that organizational role theory (ORT) is help to de? ne a â€Å"role-set† for the individual, employee and determine the speci? c role-behaviors the employee. Beside that according to According to Biddle (1986), George (1993), and Smithson and Stokoe (2005), the diminishing usefulness of classical ORT can be traced to three part. There are the limitations in its role-taking, role-consensus and role-con? ict assumptions. The theoretical issues discussed indicate about the development of ORT has failed to keep the change in the organizational context. Data Collections This research consists of two-stage qualitative data gathering process. The ? rst stage included the questionnaire-survey to a sample of employees and the second stage data collection process to collect the data required to answer the second research question. The uses of semi-structured interview allowed the researcher to strengthen the investigation. The respondent reported that charity, education, social are the important impact on their working life. iii. Result Summary To simplify the results for this study it can be divided into two summaries: Research Summary 1 Although the research findings supported the relevance of the â€Å"work-family/work-life balance† literature to ORT, there was evidence that at least four other categories of non-work roles needed to be considered for the effective management of human resources. In terms of work-roles, academics and practitioners must remain aware of the work-roles currently recognized by classical ORT. In terms of work-family roles, they need to recognize the specific impacts of the work-family interface, and become aware of the limitations of â€Å"family-friendly† practices that serve only to enable workers to spend more time at work Research Summary 2 There were two things that will be highlighted in these summaries. First, the recognition that employees (both actual and potential) are multi-faceted is incorporated into the model in three important ways. In the pre-employment phase, the model now requires the employer to attain a level of understanding of the potential employee’s family and non-family roles that they need to enact for their self-validation, self-recognition and overall wellbeing. In the initial employment phase, it requires that employers consider the interaction between the most important non-work-roles (as identified by the employee) and the work-roles to be bestowed on them. iv. Conclusion Finally it can conclude that, this research suggest the employees perceived had a signi? cant impact on their working-life. ORT needs to incorporate for an effective HR policy framework. It also recommends that further investigation into ORT’s role in the workplace and further exploration. 5. Organization Theory and Methodology This is a summary of the article â€Å"Organization Theory and Methodology† by Michael C. Jensen in Harvard Business School. In this research the researcher find the relation between positive and normative theories, the importance to the research effort of the choice of tautologies and definitions, the nature of evidence, and the role of mathematics. The author mentions that, the major reason for the early successes of operations research and its later failure can be traced to the nature of the theories. In addition, According to Alchian (1950), organization need not assume that agents are engaged in purposeful activity for the models to work. Besides that, Hayek (1979) emphasizes most of the complex phenomena that make up human culture were never consciously invented by any individual and much of human culture is still not well understood. Furthermore, there is evidence in Chandler’s (1962), work that the organizational innovations that led to the large, integrated, multi-divisional firms in the early 1900’s were accompanied by substantial innovations in accounting practices. Moreover, the behavior of the organization is the equilibrium behavior which made up of maximizing agents with diverse and conflicting. The Construction of a theory of organizations involves creating a theory that describes the equilibrium behavior of these complex contractual systems where the individual agent is the elementary unit of analysis. On the other hand, the choice of tautologies or definitions has a large impact on the success or failure of research efforts. As a conclusion, the researcher says that the competition in research is an important element for innovation and makes progress at product markets. He also mention that, ideal process described about the important aspects of the environment, monitoring and bonding technology that derive a theory that is consistent with those contracts.

Archetypes Essay -- essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  4tH Quarter Paper  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many archetypical symbols used in hundreds of works, new and old. Some of these symbols include: war, peace, love, nature, birds, mountains, and darkness. These symbols have deep meaning which help embellish a certain work. They also help the reader to better understand the theme or plot of a work. They are used freely and abundantly in most modern and pre-modern works.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The archetypical symbol of war is used symbolically as a sense of conflict or tension. It may express disbelief, or trouble. In a sense it is used to draw the reader in close. War is never looked at as a positive thing. When we think of war, we think of violence, death, destruction, heartache, cold and bitterness. This is usually what is intended by the author. Usually peace is follows. Like any work there is a rise a climax and a fall in the plot. War or conflict is usually the strongest in the climax and then the peace comes during the falling point.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the play of Hamlet war is used many times as a archetype symbol. Hamlet struggles with himself and in a way... Archetypes Essay -- essays research papers fc   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  4tH Quarter Paper  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many archetypical symbols used in hundreds of works, new and old. Some of these symbols include: war, peace, love, nature, birds, mountains, and darkness. These symbols have deep meaning which help embellish a certain work. They also help the reader to better understand the theme or plot of a work. They are used freely and abundantly in most modern and pre-modern works.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The archetypical symbol of war is used symbolically as a sense of conflict or tension. It may express disbelief, or trouble. In a sense it is used to draw the reader in close. War is never looked at as a positive thing. When we think of war, we think of violence, death, destruction, heartache, cold and bitterness. This is usually what is intended by the author. Usually peace is follows. Like any work there is a rise a climax and a fall in the plot. War or conflict is usually the strongest in the climax and then the peace comes during the falling point.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the play of Hamlet war is used many times as a archetype symbol. Hamlet struggles with himself and in a way...

? Analyses and Compare the Physical Storage Structures and Types of Available Index of the Latest Versions of: 1. Oracle 2. Sql Server 3. Db2 4. Mysql 5. Teradata

Assignment # 5 (Individual) Submission 29 Dec 11 Objective: To Enhance Analytical Ability and Knowledge * Analyses and Compare the Physical Storage Structures and types of available INDEX of the latest versions of: 1. Oracle 2. SQL Server 3. DB2 4. MySQL 5. Teradata First of all define comparative framework. Recommend one product for organizations of around 2000-4000 employees with sound reasoning based on Physical Storage Structures Introduction to Physical Storage Structures One characteristic of an RDBMS is the independence of logical data structures such as  tables,  views, and  indexes  from physical storage structures.Because physical and logical structures are separate, you can manage physical storage of data without affecting access to logical structures. For example, renaming a database file does not rename the tables stored in it. The following sections explain the physical database structures of an Oracle database, including datafiles, redo log files, and control f iles. Datafiles Every Oracle database has one or more physical  datafiles. The datafiles contain all the database data. The data of logical database structures, such as tables and indexes, is physically stored in the datafiles allocated for a database.The characteristics of datafiles are: * A datafile can be associated with only one database. * Datafiles can have certain characteristics set to let them automatically extend when the database runs out of space. * One or more datafiles form a logical unit of database storage called a tablespace. Data in a datafile is read, as needed, during normal database operation and stored in the memory cache of Oracle. For example, assume that a user wants to access some data in a table of a database. If the requested information is not already in the memory cache for the database, then it is read from the appropriate atafiles and stored in memory. Modified or new data is not necessarily written to a datafile immediately. To reduce the amount of disk access and to increase performance, data is pooled in memory and written to the appropriate datafiles all at once, as determined by the  database writer process (DBWn)  background process. Control Files Every Oracle database has a  control file. A control file contains entries that specify the physical structure of the database. For example, it contains the following information: * Database name * Names and locations of datafiles and redo log files * Time stamp of database creationOracle can  multiplex  the control file, that is, simultaneously maintain a number of identical control file copies, to protect against a failure involving the control file. Every time an  instance  of an Oracle database is started, its control file identifies the database and redo log files that must be opened for database operation to proceed. If the physical makeup of the database is altered, (for example, if a new datafile or redo log file is created), then the control file is autom atically modified by Oracle to reflect the change. A control file is also used in database recovery. Redo Log FilesEvery Oracle database has a set of two or more  redo log files. The set of redo log files is collectively known as the redo log for the database. A redo log is made up of redo entries (also called  redo records). The primary function of the redo log is to record all changes made to data. If a failure prevents modified data from being permanently written to the datafiles, then the changes can be obtained from the redo log, so work is never lost. To protect against a failure involving the redo log itself, Oracle allows a  multiplexed redo log  so that two or more copies of the redo log can be maintained on different disks.The information in a redo log file is used only to recover the database from a system or media failure that prevents database data from being written to the datafiles. For example, if an unexpected power outage terminates database operation, then data in memory cannot be written to the datafiles, and the data is lost. However, lost data can be recovered when the database is opened, after power is restored. By applying the information in the most recent redo log files to the database datafiles, Oracle restores the database to the time at which the power failure occurred.The process of applying the redo log during a recovery operation is called  rolling forward. Archive Log Files You can enable automatic archiving of the redo log. Oracle automatically archives log files when the database is in  ARCHIVELOG  mode. Parameter Files Parameter files contain a list of configuration parameters for that instance and database. Oracle recommends that you create a server parameter file (SPFILE) as a dynamic means of maintaining initialization parameters. A server parameter file lets you store and manage your initialization parameters persistently in a server-side disk file.Alert and Trace Log Files Each server and background proces s can write to an associated trace file. When an internal error is detected by a process, it dumps information about the error to its trace file. Some of the information written to a trace file is intended for the database administrator, while other information is for Oracle Support Services. Trace file information is also used to tune applications and instances. The alert file, or alert log, is a special trace file. The alert file of a database is a chronological log of messages and errors. Backup Files To restore a file is to replace it with a backup file.Typically, you restore a file when a media failure or user error has damaged or deleted the original file. User-managed backup and recovery requires you to actually restore backup files before you can perform a trial recovery of the backups. Server-managed backup and recovery manages the backup process, such as scheduling of backups, as well as the recovery process, such as applying the correct backup file when recovery is needed . A database  instance  is a set of memory structures that manage database files. Figure 11-1  shows the relationship between the instance and the files that it manages.Figure 11-1 Database Instance and Database Files Mechanisms for Storing Database Files Several mechanisms are available for allocating and managing the storage of these files. The most common mechanisms include: 1. Oracle Automatic Storage Management (Oracle ASM) Oracle ASM includes a file system designed exclusively for use by Oracle Database. 2. Operating system file system Most Oracle databases store files in a  file system, which is a data structure built inside a contiguous disk address space. All operating systems have  file managers that allocate and deallocate disk space into files within a file system.A file system enables disk space to be allocated to many files. Each file has a name and is made to appear as a contiguous address space to applications such as Oracle Database. The database can creat e, read, write, resize, and delete files. A file system is commonly built on top of a  logical volume  constructed by a software package called a  logical volume manager (LVM). The LVM enables pieces of multiple physical disks to be combined into a single contiguous address space that appears as one disk to higher layers of software. 3. Raw device Raw devices  are disk partitions or logical volumes not formatted with a file system.The primary benefit of raw devices is the ability to perform  direct I/O  and to write larger buffers. In direct I/O, applications write to and read from the storage device directly, bypassing the operating system buffer cache. 4. Cluster file system A  cluster file system  is software that enables multiple computers to share file storage while maintaining consistent space allocation and file content. In an Oracle RAC environment, a cluster file system makes shared storage appears as a file system shared by many computers in a clustered env ironment.With a cluster file system, the failure of a computer in the cluster does not make the file system unavailable. In an operating system file system, however, if a computer sharing files through NFS or other means fails, then the file system is unavailable. A database employs a combination of the preceding storage mechanisms. For example, a database could store the control files and online redo log files in a traditional file system, some user data files on raw partitions, the remaining data files in Oracle ASM, and archived the redo log files to a cluster file system. Indexes in OracleThere are several types of indexes available in Oracle all designed for different circumstances: 1. b*tree indexes – the most common type (especially in OLTP environments) and the default type 2. b*tree cluster indexes – for clusters 3. hash cluster indexes – for hash clusters 4. reverse key indexes – useful in Oracle Real Application Cluster (RAC) applications 5. bi tmap indexes – common in data warehouse applications 6. partitioned indexes – also useful for data warehouse applications 7. function-based indexes 8. index organized tables 9. domain indexesLet's look at these Oracle index types in a little more detail. B*Tree Indexes B*tree stands for balanced tree. This means that the height of the index is the same for all values thereby ensuring that retrieving the data for any one value takes approximately the same amount of time as for any other value. Oracle b*tree indexes are best used when each value has a high cardinality (low number of occurrences)for example primary key indexes or unique indexes. One important point to note is that NULL values are not indexed. They are the most common type of index in OLTP systems. B*Tree Cluster IndexesThese are B*tree index defined for clusters. Clusters are two or more tables with one or more common columns and are usually accessed together (via a join). CREATE INDEX product_orders_ix O N CLUSTER product_orders; Hash Cluster Indexes In a hash cluster rows that have the same hash key value (generated by a hash function) are stored together in the Oracle database. Hash clusters are equivalent to indexed clusters, except the index key is replaced with a hash function. This also means that here is no separate index as the hash is the index. CREATE CLUSTER emp_dept_cluster (dept_id NUMBER) HASHKEYS 50; Reverse Key IndexesThese are typically used in Oracle Real Application Cluster (RAC) applications. In this type of index the bytes of each of the indexed columns are reversed (but the column order is maintained). This is useful when new data is always inserted at one end of the index as occurs when using a sequence as it ensures new index values are created evenly across the leaf blocks preventing the index from becoming unbalanced which may in turn affect performance. CREATE INDEX emp_ix ON emp(emp_id) REVERSE; Bitmap Indexes These are commonly used in data warehouse app lications for tables with no updates and whose columns have low cardinality (i. . there are few distinct values). In this type of index Oracle stores a bitmap for each distinct value in the index with 1 bit for each row in the table. These bitmaps are expensive to maintain and are therefore not suitable for applications which make a lot of writes to the data. For example consider a car manufacturer which records information about cars sold including the colour of each car. Each colour is likely to occur many times and is therefore suitable for a bitmap index. CREATE BITMAP INDEX car_col ON cars(colour) REVERSE; Partitioned IndexesPartitioned Indexes are also useful in Oracle datawarehouse applications where there is a large amount of data that is partitioned by a particular dimension such as time. Partition indexes can either be created as local partitioned indexes or global partitioned indexes. Local partitioned indexes mean that the index is partitioned on the same columns and wit h the same number of partitions as the table. For global partitioned indexes the partitioning is user defined and is not the same as the underlying table. Refer to the create index statement in the Oracle SQL language reference for details. Function-based IndexesAs the name suggests these are indexes created on the result of a function modifying a column value. For example CREATE INDEX upp_ename ON emp(UPPER(ename((; The function must be deterministic (always return the same value for the same input). Index Organized Tables In an index-organized table all the data is stored in the Oracle database in a B*tree index structure defined on the table's primary key. This is ideal when related pieces of data must be stored together or data must be physically stored in a specific order. Index-organized tables are often used for information retrieval, spatial and OLAP applications.Domain Indexes These indexes are created by user-defined indexing routines and enable the user to define his or h er own indexes on custom data types (domains) such as pictures, maps or fingerprints for example. These types of index require in-depth knowledge about the data and how it will be accessed. Indexes in Sql Server Index type| Description| Clustered| A clustered index sorts and stores the data rows of the table or view in order based on the clustered index key. The clustered index is implemented as a B-tree index structure that supports fast retrieval of the rows, based on their clustered index key values. Nonclustered| A nonclustered index can be defined on a table or view with a clustered index or on a heap. Each index row in the nonclustered index contains the nonclustered key value and a row locator. This locator points to the data row in the clustered index or heap having the key value. The rows in the index are stored in the order of the index key values, but the data rows are not guaranteed to be in any particular order unless a clustered index is created on the table. | Unique| A unique index ensures that the index key contains no duplicate values and therefore every row in the table or view is in some way unique.Both clustered and nonclustered indexes can be unique. | Index with included columns| A nonclustered index that is extended to include nonkey columns in addition to the key columns. | Full-text| A special type of token-based functional index that is built and maintained by the Microsoft Full-Text Engine for SQL Server. It provides efficient support for sophisticated word searches in character string data. | Spatial| A spatial index provides the ability to perform certain operations more efficiently on spatial objects (spatial data) in a column of the  geometry  data type.The spatial index reduces the number of objects on which relatively costly spatial operations need to be applied. | Filtered| An optimized nonclustered index especially suited to cover queries that select from a well-defined subset of data. It uses a filter predicate to index a portion of rows in the table. A well-designed filtered index can improve query performance, reduce index maintenance costs, and reduce index storage costs compared with full-table indexes. | XML| A shredded, and persisted, representation of the XML binary large objects (BLOBs) in the  xml  data type column. | SQL Server Storage StructuresSQL Server does not see data and storage in exactly the same way a DBA or end-user does. DBA sees initialized devices, device fragments allocated to databases, segments defined within Databases, tables defined within segments, and rows stored in tables. SQL Server views storage at a lower level as device fragments allocated to databases, pages allocated to tables and indexes within the database, and information stored on pages. There are two basic types of storage structures in a database. * Linked data pages * Index trees. All information in SQL Server is stored at the page level. When a database is created, all spaceAllocated to it is divid ed into a number of pages, each page 2KB in size. There are five types of pages within SQL Server: 1. Data and log pages 2. Index pages 3. Text/image pages 4. Allocation pages 5. Distribution pages All pages in SQL Server contain a page header. The page header is 32 bytes in size and contains the logical page number, the next and previous logical page numbers in the page linkage, the object_id of the object to which the page belongs, the minimum row size, the next available row number within the page, and the byte location of the start of the free space on the page.The contents of a page header can be examined by using the dbcc page command. You must be logged in as sa to run the dbcc page command. The syntax for the dbcc page command is as follows: dbcc page (dbid | page_no [,0 | 1 | 2]) The SQL Server keeps track of which object a page belongs to, if any. The allocation of pages within SQL Server is managed through the use of allocation units and allocation pages. Allocation Pages Space is allocated to a SQL Server database by the create database and alter database commands. The space allocated to a database is divided into a number of 2KB pages.Each page is assigned a logical page number starting at page 0 and increased sequentially. The pages are then divided into allocation units of 256 contiguous 2KB pages, or 512 bytes (1/2 MB) each. The first page of each allocation unit is an allocation page that controls the allocation of all pages within the allocation unit. The allocation pages control the allocation of pages to tables and indexes within the database. Pages are allocated in contiguous blocks of eight pages called extents. The minimum unit of allocation within a database is an extent.When a table is created, it is initially assigned a single extent, or 16KB of space, even if the table contains no rows. There are 32 extents within an allocation unit (256/8). An allocation page contains 32 extent structures for each extent within that allocation unit. Each extent structure is 16 bytes and contains the following information: 1. Object ID of object to which extent is allocated 2. Next extent ID in chain 3. Previous extent ID in chain 4. Allocation bitmap 5. Deallocation bitmap 6. Index ID (if any) to which the extent is allocated 7. StatusThe allocation bitmap for each extent structure indicates which pages within the allocated extent are in use by the table. The deallocation bit map is used to identify pages that have become empty during a transaction that has not yet been completed. The actual marking of the page as unused does not occur until the transaction is committed, to prevent another transaction from allocating the page before the transaction is complete. Data Pages A data page is the basic unit of storage within SQL Server. All the other types of pages within a database are essentially variations of the data page.All data pages contain a 32-byte header, as described earlier. With a 2KB page (2048 bytes) this leaves 2016 bytes for storing data within the data page. In SQL Server, data rows cannot cross page boundaries. The maximum size of a single row is 1962 bytes, including row overhead. Data pages are linked to one another by using the page pointers (prevpg, nextpg) contained in the page header. This page linkage enables SQL Server to locate all rows in a table by scanning all pages in the link. Data page linkage can be thought of as a two-way linked list.This enables SQL Server to easily link new pages into or unlink pages from the page linkage by adjusting the page pointers. In addition to the page header, each data page also contains data rows and a row offset table. The row-offset table grows backward from the end of the page and contains the location or each row on the data page. Each entry is 2 bytes wide. Data Rows Data is stored on data pages in data rows. The size of each data row is a factor of the sum of the size of the columns plus the row overhead. Each record in a data page is assi gned a row number. A single byte is used within each row to store the row number.Therefore, SQL Server has a maximum limit of 256 rows per page, because that is the largest value that can be stored in a single byte (2^8). For a data row containing all fixed-length columns, there are four bytes of overhead per row: 1. Byte to store the number of variable-length columns (in this case, 0) 1 byte to store the row number. 2. Bytes in the row offset table at the end of the page to store the location of the row on the page. If a data row contains variable-length columns, there is additional overhead per row. A data row is variable in size if any column is defined as varchar, varbinary, or allows null values.In addition to the 4 bytes of overhead described previously, the following bytes are required to store the actual row width and location of columns within the data row: 2 bytes to store the total row width 1 byte per variable-length column to store the starting location of the column wi thin the row 1 byte for the column offset table 1 additional byte for each 256-byte boundary passed Within each row containing variable-length columns, SQL Server builds a column offset table backward for the end of the row for each variable-length column in the table.Because only 1 byte is used for each column with a maximum offset of 255, an adjust byte must be created for each 256-byte boundary crossed as an additional offset. Variable-length columns are always stored after all fixed-length columns, regardless of the order of the columns in the table definition. Estimating Row and Table Sizes Knowing the size of a data row and the corresponding overhead per row helps you determine the number of rows that can be stored per page.The number of rows per page affects the system performance. A greater number of rows per page can help query performance by reducing the number of ages that need to be read to satisfy the query. Conversely, fewer rows per page help improve performance for c oncurrent transactions by reducing the chances of two or more users accessing rows on the same page that may be locked. Let's take a look at how you can estimate row and table sizes. Fixed-length fields with no null values.Sum of column widths overhead- The Row Offset Table The location of a row within a page is determined by using the row offset table at the end of the page. To find a specific row within the page, SQL Server looks in the row offset table for the starting byte address within the data page for that row ID. Note that SQL Server keeps all free space at the end of the data page, shifting rows up to fill in where a previous row was deleted and ensuring no space fragmentation within the page.If the offset table contains a zero value for a row ID that indicates that the row has been deleted. Index Structure All SQL Server indexes are B-Trees. There is a single root page at the top of the tree, branching out into N number of pages at each intermediate level until it reaches the bottom, or leaf level, of the index. The index tree is traversed by following pointers from the upper-level pages down through the lower-level pages. In addition, each index level is a separate page chain. There may be many intermediate levels in an index.The number of levels is dependent on the index key width, the type of index, and the number of rows and/or pages in the table. The number of levels is important in relation to index performance. Non-clustered Indexes A non-clustered index is analogous to an index in a textbook. The data is stored in one place, the index in another, with pointers to the storage location of the data. The items in the index are stored in the order of the index key values, but the information in the table is stored in a different order (which can be dictated by a clustered index).If no clustered index is created on the table, the rows are not guaranteed to be in any particular order. Similar to the way you use an index in a book, Microsoft ® SQL Serverâ„ ¢ 2000 searches for a data value by searching the non-clustered index to find the location of the data value in the table and then retrieves the data directly from that location. This makes non-clustered indexes the optimal choice for exact match queries because the index contains entries describing the exact location in the table of the data values being searched for in the queries.If the underlying table is sorted using a clustered index, the location is the clustering key value; otherwise, the location is the row ID (RID) comprised of the file number, page number, and slot number of the row. For example, to search for an employee ID (emp_id) in a table that has a non-clustered index on the emp_id column, SQL Server looks through the index to find an entry that lists the exact page and row in the table where the matching emp_id can be found, and then goes directly to that page and row. Clustered IndexesA clustered index determines the physical order of data in a table . A clustered index is analogous to a telephone directory, which arranges data by last name. Because the clustered index dictates the physical storage order of the data in the table, a table can contain only one clustered index. However, the index can comprise multiple columns (a composite index), like the way a telephone directory is organized by last name and first name. Clustered Indexes are very similar to Oracle's IOT's (Index-Organized Tables).A clustered index is particularly efficient on columns that are often searched for ranges of values. After the row with the first value is found using the clustered index, rows with subsequent indexed values are guaranteed to be physically adjacent. For example, if an application frequently executes a query to retrieve records between a range of dates, a clustered index can quickly locate the row containing the beginning date, and then retrieve all adjacent rows in the table until the last date is reached. This can help increase the perf ormance of this type of query.Also, if there is a column(s) that is used frequently to sort the data retrieved from a table, it can be advantageous to cluster (physically sort) the table on that column(s) to save the cost of a sort each time the column(s) is queried. Clustered indexes are also efficient for finding a specific row when the indexed value is unique. For example, the fastest way to find a particular employee using the unique employee ID column emp_id is to create a clustered index or PRIMARY KEY constraint on the emp_id column.Note  Ã‚  PRIMARY KEY constraints create clustered indexes automatically if no clustered index already exists on the table and a non-clustered index is not specified when you create the PRIMARY KEY constraint. Index Structures Indexes are created on columns in tables or views. The index provides a fast way to look up data based on the values within those columns. For example, if you create an index on the primary key and then search for a row of data based on one of the primary key values, SQL Server first finds that value in the index, and then uses the index to quickly locate the entire row of data.Without the index, a table scan would have to be performed in order to locate the row, which can have a significant effect on performance. You can create indexes on most columns in a table or a view. The exceptions are primarily those columns configured with large object (LOB) data types, such as  image,  text,  and  varchar(max). You can also create indexes on XML columns, but those indexes are slightly different from the basic index and are beyond the scope of this article. Instead, I'll focus on those indexes that are implemented most commonly in a SQL Server database.An index is made up of a set of pages (index nodes) that are organized in a B-tree structure. This structure is hierarchical in nature, with the root node at the top of the hierarchy and the leaf nodes at the bottom, as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: B-t ree structure of a SQL Server index When a query is issued against an indexed column, the query engine starts at the root node and navigates down through the intermediate nodes, with each layer of the intermediate level more granular than the one above. The query engine continues down through the index nodes until it reaches the leaf node.For example, if you’re searching for the value 123 in an indexed column, the query engine would first look in the root level to determine which page to reference in the top intermediate level. In this example, the first page points the values 1-100, and the second page, the values 101-200, so the query engine would go to the second page on that level. The query engine would then determine that it must go to the third page at the next intermediate level. From there, the query engine would navigate to the leaf node for value 123.The leaf node will contain either the entire row of data or a pointer to that row, depending on whether the index is clustered or nonclustered. Clustered Indexes A clustered index stores the actual data rows at the leaf level of the index. Returning to the example above, that would mean that the entire row of data associated with the primary key value of 123 would be stored in that leaf node. An important characteristic of the clustered index is that the indexed values are sorted in either ascending or descending order.As a result, there can be only one clustered index on a table or view. In addition, data in a table is sorted only if a clustered index has been defined on a table. Note:  A table that has a clustered index is referred to as a  clustered table. A table that has no clustered index is referred to as a  heap. Nonclustered Indexes Unlike a clustered indexed, the leaf nodes of a nonclustered index contain only the values from the indexed columns and row locators that point to the actual data rows, rather than contain the data rows themselves.This means that the query engine must t ake an additional step in order to locate the actual data. A row locator’s structure depends on whether it points to a clustered table or to a heap. If referencing a clustered table, the row locator points to the clustered index, using the value from the clustered index to navigate to the correct data row. If referencing a heap, the row locator points to the actual data row. Nonclustered indexes cannot be sorted like clustered indexes; however, you can create more than one nonclustered index per table or view.SQL Server 2005 supports up to 249 nonclustered indexes, and SQL Server 2008 support up to 999. This certainly doesn’t mean you should create that many indexes. Indexes can both help and hinder performance, as I explain later in the article. In addition to being able to create multiple nonclustered indexes on a table or view, you can also add  included columns  to your index. This means that you can store at the leaf level not only the values from the indexed column, but also the values from non-indexed columns. This strategy allows you to get around some of the limitations on indexes.For example, you can include non-indexed columns in order to exceed the size limit of indexed columns (900 bytes in most cases). Index Types In addition to an index being clustered or nonclustered, it can be configured in other ways: * Composite index:  An index that contains more than one column. In both SQL Server 2005 and 2008, you can include up to 16 columns in an index, as long as the index doesn’t exceed the 900-byte limit. Both clustered and nonclustered indexes can be composite indexes. * Unique Index:  An index that ensures the uniqueness of each value in the indexed column.If the index is a composite, the uniqueness is enforced across the columns as a whole, not on the individual columns. For example, if you were to create an index on the FirstName and LastName columns in a table, the names together must be unique, but the individual n ames can be duplicated. A unique index is automatically created when you define a primary key or unique constraint: * Primary key:  When you define a primary key constraint on one or more columns, SQL Server automatically creates a unique, clustered index if a clustered index does not already exist on the table or view.However, you can override the default behavior and define a unique, nonclustered index on the primary key. * Unique:  When you define a unique constraint, SQL Server automatically creates a unique, nonclustered index. You can specify that a unique clustered index be created if a clustered index does not already exist on the table. * Covering index:  A type of index that includes all the columns that are needed to process a particular query. For example, your query might retrieve the FirstName and LastName columns from a table, based on a value in the ContactID column.You can create a covering index that includes all three columns. Teradata What is the Teradata R DBMS? The Teradata RDBMS is a complete relational database management system. With the Teradata RDBMS, you can access, store, and operate on data using Teradata Structured Query Language (Teradata SQL). It is broadly compatible with IBM and ANSI SQL. Users of the client system send requests to the Teradata RDBMS through the Teradata Director Program (TDP) using the Call-Level Interface (CLI) program (Version 2) or via Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) using the Teradata ODBC Driver.As data requirements grow increasingly complex, so does the need for a faster, simpler way to manage data warehouse. That combination of unmatched performance and efficient management is built into the foundation of the Teradata Database. The Teradata Database is continuously being enhanced with new features and functionality that automatically distribute data and balance mixed workloads even in the most complex environments.Teradata Database 14  currently offers low total cost of ownership in a simple, scalable, parallel and self-managing solution. This proven, high-performance decision support engine running on the  Teradata Purpose-Built Platform Family offers a full suite of data access and management tools, plus world-class services. The Teradata Database supports installations from fewer than 10 gigabytes to huge warehouses with hundreds of terabytes and thousands of customers. Features & BenefitsAutomatic Built-In Functionality  | Fast Query Performance  | â€Å"Parallel Everything† design and smart Teradata Optimizer enables fast query execution across platforms| | Quick Time to Value  | Simple set up steps with automatic â€Å"hands off† distribution of data, along with integrated load utilities result in rapid installations| | Simple to Manage  | DBAs never have to set parameters, manage table space, or reorganize data| | Responsive to Business Change  | Fully parallel MPP â€Å"shared nothing† architecture scales linearly across data, us ers, and applications providing consistent and predictable performance and growth| Easy Set & G0† Optimization Options  | Powerful, Embedded Analytics  | In-database data mining, virtual OLAP/cubes, geospatial and temporal analytics, custom and embedded services in an extensible open parallel framework drive efficient and differentiated business insight| | Advanced Workload Management  | Workload management options by user, application, time of day and CPU exceptions| | Intelligent Scan Elimination  | â€Å"Set and Go† options reduce full file scanning (Primary, Secondary, Multi-level Partitioned Primary, Aggregate Join Index, Sync Scan)| Physical Storage Structure of Teradata Teradata offers a true hybrid row and Column database.All database management systems constantly tinker with the internal structure of the files on disk. Each release brings an improvement or two that has been steadily improving analytic workload performance. However, few of the key player s in relational database management systems (RDBMS) have altered the fundamental structure of having all of the columns of the table stored consecutively on disk for each record. The innovations and practical use cases of â€Å"columnar databases† have come from the independent vendor world, where it has proven to be quite effective in the performance of an increasingly important class of analytic query.These columnar databases store data by columns instead of rows. This means that all values of a single column are stored consecutively on disk. The columns are tied together as â€Å"rows† only in a catalog reference. This gives a much finer grain of control to the RDBMS data manager. It can access only the columns required for the query as opposed to being forced to access all columns of the row. It’s optimal for queries that need a small percentage of the columns in the tables they are in but suboptimal when you need most of the columns due to the overhead in a ttaching all of the columns together to form the result sets.Teradata 14 Hybrid Columnar The unique innovation by Teradata, in Teradata 14, is to add columnar structure to a table, effectively mixing row structure, column structures and multi-column structures directly in the DBMS which already powers many of the largest data warehouses in the world. With intelligent exploitation of Teradata Columnar in Teradata 14, there is no longer the need to go outside the data warehouse DBMS for the power of performance that columnar provides, and it is no longer necessary to sacrifice robustness and support in the DBMS that holds the post-operational data.A major component of that robustness is parallelism, a feature that has obviously fueled much of Teradata’s leadership position in large-scale enterprise data warehousing over the years. Teradata’s parallelism, working with the columnar elements, are creating an entirely new paradigm in analytic computing – the pinpoint accuracy of I/O with column and row partition elimination. With columnar and parallelism, the I/O executes very precisely on data interesting to the query. This is finally a strong, and appropriate, architectural response to the I/O bottleneck issue that analytic queries have been living with for a decade.It also may be Teradata Database’s most significant enhancement in that time. The physical structure of each container can also be in row (extensive page metadata including a map to offsets) which is referred to as â€Å"row storage format,† or columnar (the row â€Å"number† is implied by the value’s relative position). Partition Elimination and Columnar The idea of data division to create smaller units of work as well as to make those units of work relevant to the query is nothing new to Teradata Database, and most DBMSs for that matter.While the concept is being applied now to the columns of a table, it has long been applied to its rows in the form of partitioning and parallelism. One of the hallmarks of Teradata’s unique approach is that all database functions (table scan, index scan, joins, sorts, insert, delete, update, load and all utilities) are done in parallel all of the time. There is no conditional parallelism. All units of parallelism participate in each database action. Teradata eliminates partitions from needing I/O by reading its metadata to understand the range of data placed into the partitions and eliminating those that are washed out by the predicates.See Figure There is no change to partition elimination in Teradata 14 except that the approach also works with columnar data, creating a combination row and column elimination possibility. In a partitioned, multi-container table, the unneeded containers will be virtually eliminated from consideration based on the selection and projection conditions of the query. See Figure Following the column elimination, unneeded partitions will be virtually eliminated fro m consideration based on the projection conditions.For the price of a few metadata reads to facilitate the eliminations, the I/O can now specifically retrieve a much focused set of data. The addition of columnar elimination reduces the expensive I/O operation, and hence the query execution time, by orders of magnitude for column-selective queries. The combination of row and column elimination is a unique characteristic of Teradata’s implementation of columnar. Compression in Teradata Columnar Storage costs, while decreasing on a per-capita basis over time, are still consuming increasing budget due to the massive increase in the volume of data to store.While the data is required to be under management, it is equally required that the data be compressed. In addition to saving on storage costs, compression also greatly aids the I/O problem, effectively offering up more relevant information in each I/O. Columnar storage provides a unique opportunity to take advantage of a series of compression routines that make more sense when dealing with well-defined data that has limited variance like a column (versus a row with high variability. ) Teradata Columnar utilizes several compression methods that take advantage of the olumnar orientation of the data. A few methods are highlighted below. Run-Length Encoding When there are repeating values (e. g. , many successive rows with the value of ‘12/25/11’ in the date container), these are easily compressed in columnar systems like Teradata Columnar, which uses â€Å"run length encoding† to simply indicate the range of rows for which the value applies. Dictionary Encoding Even when the values are not repeating successively, as in the date example, if they are repeating in the container, there is opportunity to do a dictionary representation of the data to further save space.Dictionary encoding is done in Teradata Columnar by storing compressed forms of the complete value. The dictionary representatio ns are fixed length which allows the data pages to remain void of internal maps to where records begin. The records begin at fixed offsets from the beginning of the container and no â€Å"value-level† metadata is required. This small fact saves calculations at run-time for page navigation, another benefit of columnar. For example, 1=Texas, 2=Georgia and 3=Florida could be in the dictionary, and when those are the column values, the 1, 2 and 3 are used in lieu of Texas, Georgia and Florida.If there are 1,000,000 customers with only 50 possible values for state, the entire vector could be stored with 1,000,000 bytes (one byte minimum per value). In addition to dictionary compression, including the â€Å"trimming†8 of character fields, traditional compression (with algorithm UTF8) is made available to Teradata Columnar data. Delta Compression Fields in a tight range of values can also benefit from only storing the offset (â€Å"delta†) from a set value. Teradata Co lumnar calculates an average for a container and can store only the offsets from that value in place of the field.Whereas the value itself might be an integer, the offsets can be small integers, which double the space utilization. Compression methods like this lose their effectiveness when a variety of field types, such as found in a typical row, need to be stored consecutively. The compression methods are applied automatically (if desired) to each container, and can vary across all the columns of a table or even from container to container within a column9 based on the characteristics of the data in the container.Multiple methods can be used with each column, which is a strong feature of Teradata Columnar. The compounding effect of the compression in columnar databases is a tremendous improvement over the standard compression that would be available for a strict row-based DBMS. Teradata Indexes Teradata provides several indexing options for optimizing the performance of your relati onal databases. i. Primary Indexes ii. Secondary Indexes iii. Join Indexes iv. Hash Indexes v. Reference Indexes Primary Index Primary index determines the distribution of table rows on the disks controlled by AMPs.In Teradata RDBMS, a primary index is required for row distribution and storage. When a new row is inserted, its hash code is derived by applying a hashing algorithm to the value in the column(s) of the primary code (as show in the following figure). Rows having the same primary index value are stored on the same AMP. Rules for defining primary indexes The primary indexes for a table should represent the data values most used by the SQL to access the data for the table. Careful selection of the primary index is one of the most important steps in creating a table.Defining primary indexes should follow the following rules: * A primary index should be defined to provide a nearly uniform distribution of rows among the AMPs, the more unique the index, the more even the distrib ution of rows and the better space utilization. * The index should be defined on as few columns as possible. * Primary index can be either Unique or non-unique. A unique index must have a unique value in the corresponding fields of every row;   a non-unique index permits the insertion of duplicate field values. The unique primary index is more efficient. Once created, the primary index cannot be dropped or modified, the index must be changed by recreating the table. If a primary index is not defined in the CREATE TABLE statement through an explicit declaration of a PRIMARY INDEX, the default is to use one of the following: * PRIMARY key * First UNIQUE constraint * First column The primary index values are stored in an integral part of the primary table. It should be based on the set selection most frequently used to access rows from a table and on the uniqueness of the value.Secondary Index In addition to a primary index, up to 32 unique and non-unique secondary indexes can be def ined for a table. Comparing to primary indexes, Secondary indexes allow access to information in a table by alternate, less frequently used paths. A secondary index is a subtable that is stored in all AMPs, but separately from the primary table. The subtables, which are built and maintained by the system, contain the following; * RowIDs of the subtable rows * Base table index column values * RowIDs of the base table rows (points)As shown in the following figure, the secondary index subtable on each AMP is associated with the base table by the rowID . Defining and creating secondary index Secondary index are optional. Unlike the primary index, a secondary index can be added or dropped without recreating the table. There can be one or more secondary indexes in the CREATE TABLE statement, or add them to an existing table using the CREATE INDEX statement or ALTER TABLE statement. DROP INDEX can be used to dropping a named or unnamed secondary index.Since secondary indexes require subtab les, these subtables require additional disk space and, therefore, may require additional I/Os for INSERTs, DELETEs, and UPDATEs. Generally, secondary index are defined on column values frequently used in WHERE constraints. Join Index A join index is an indexing structure containing columns from multiple tables, specifically the resulting columns form one or more tables. Rather than having to join individual tables each time the join operation is needed, the query can be resolved via a join index and, in most cases, dramatically improve performance.Effects of Join index Depending on the complexity of the joins, the Join Index helps improve the performance of certain types of work. The following need to be considered when manipulating join indexes: * Load Utilities  Ã‚  Ã‚   The join indexes are not supported by MultiLoad and FastLoad utilities, they must be dropped and   recreated after the table has been loaded. * Archive and Restore  Ã‚  Ã‚   Archive and Restore cannot be us ed on join index itself. During a restore of   a base table or database, the join index is marked as invalid.The join index must be dropped and recreated before it can be used again in the execution of queries. * Fallback Protection  Ã‚  Ã‚   Join index subtables cannot be Fallback-protected. * Permanent Journal Recovery  Ã‚  Ã‚   The join index is not automatically rebuilt during the recovery process. Instead, the join index is marked as invalid and the join index must be dropped and recreated before it can be used again in the execution of queries. * Triggers  Ã‚  Ã‚   A join index cannot be defined on a table with triggers. Collecting Statistics  Ã‚  Ã‚   In general, there is no benefit in collecting statistics on a join index for joining columns specified in the join index definition itself. Statistics related to these columns should be collected on the underlying base table rather than on the join index. Defining and creating secondary index Join indexes can be create d and dropped by using CREATE JOIN INDEX and DROP JOIN INDEX statements. Join indexes are automatically maintained by the system when updates (UPDATE, DELETE, and INSERT) are performed on the underlying base tables.Additional steps are included in the execution plan to regenerate the affected portion of the stored join result. Hash Indexes Hash indexes are used for the same purposes as single-table join indexes. The principal difference between hash and single-table join indexes are listed in the following table. Hash indexes create a full or partial replication of a base table with a primary index on a foreign key column table to facilitate joins of very large tables by hashing them to the same AMP. You can define a hash index on one table only.The functionality of hash indexes is a superset to that of single-table join indexes. Hash indexes are not indexes in the usual sense of the word. They are base tables that cannot be accessed directly by a query. The Optimizer includes a has h index in a query plan in the following situations. * The index covers all or part of a join query, thus eliminating the need to redistribute rows to make the join. In the case of partial query covers, the Optimizer uses certain implicitly defined elements in the hash index to join it with its underlying base table to pick up the base table columns necessary to complete the cover. A query requests that one or more columns be aggregated, thus eliminating the need to perform the aggregate computation For the most part, hash index storage is identical to standard base table storage except that hash indexes can be compressed. Hash index rows are hashed and partitioned on their primary index (which is always defined as non-unique). Hash index tables can be indexed explicitly, and their indexes are stored just like non-unique primary indexes for any other base table.Unlike join indexes, hash index definitions do not permit you to specify secondary indexes. The major difference in storage between hash indexes and standard base tables is the manner in which the repeated field values of a hash index are stored. Reference Indexes A reference index is an internal structure that the system creates whenever a referential integrity constraint is defined between tables using a PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE constraint on the parent table in the relationship and a REFERENCES constraint on a foreign key in the child table.The index row contains a count of the number of references in the child, or foreign key, table to the PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE constraint in the parent table. Apart from capacity planning issues, reference indexes have no user visibility. References for Teradata http://www. teradata. com/products-and-services/database/ http://teradata. uark. edu/research/wang/indexes. html http://www. teradata. com/products-and-services/database/teradata-13/ http://www. odbms. org/download/illuminate%20Comparison. pdf